Singhasari, a short-lived kingdom of less than one century old (1222–1292), was ruled by only five kings. Yet it became the forerunner of the great Majapahit Empire that united the Indonesian archipelago, Nusantara.
The Singhasari Kingdom, founded by Ken Angrok in the early 13th century, unified Janggala and Panjalu. His rise to power, guided by prophecy, led to the construction of sacred temples like Candi Kidal, Candi Jago, and Candi Singosari. The capital, Kutaraja, once surrounded by a trench and rich in sculptures, reflects the kingdom’s legacy. Singhasari’s art, including detailed carvings and textile patterns, showcases a blend of cultural influences and Tantrayana symbolism.
Singhasari, a short-lived (1222–1292) kingdom of less than one century old, was ruled by only five kings. Yet it became the forerunner of the great Majapahit Empire that united the archipelago, Nusantara.
Sri Rangga Rajasa, also known as Ken Angrok, was a legendary warlord and the founder of the Singhasari Kingdom. Born mysteriously as the son of Girinatha, he rose from humble origins. His destiny shifted when he saw Ken Dedes glowing with divine radiance. His guru, Lohgawe, prophesied that whoever married her would become ruler of Java. Determined, Ken Angrok had a magical keris forged by Empu Gandring and used it to kill her husband, Tunggul Ametung. After seizing Tumapel, he was ordained king in 1144 Saka, defeated Kediri’s last ruler, and unified Janggala and Panjalu into Singhasari.
Singhasari laid down the foundation of a unitary state and bequeathed the most breathtaking sculptures. The mighty Durga Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha and Bhairawa adorned with Tantrayana arts, and Prajanaparamita believed to be a portrait of Ken Dedes or Goddess Gayatri – we will reveal them in today’s Unboxing Heritage of the Singosari Kingdom that is the forerunner of the great Majapahit Empire.
Singhasari's capital, Kutaraja, was strategically located at the meeting point of the Brantas and Bangau rivers, known locally as tempuran (in Central Java) or Supit Urang (In East Java). The area, surrounded by natural borders, had a trench for protection and once featured 149 sculptures, though most are now lost. Evidence of the kraton includes a bathhouse and remains of ceramics, brick foundations, and pedestals. The capital was later moved to Candi Jago by Wisnu Wardhana (King of Singhasari ruling between 1248-1268), with Candi Kidal built for Anusapati (1222 and 1248). Today, the kraton site is near the Candi Singosari, with a plaza, or alun-alun, stretching towards it.
During the Singhasari era, the idea of a unified kingdom was solidified, building on the Kediri Kingdom's legacy of a unitary state. The belief that kings were incarnations of gods gained prominence, making temples sacred sites for both devotion and dharma, similar to ancient Egypt's necropolises. Candi Kidal served as a sacred burial place for Anusapati, while Candi Jago was dedicated to Wisnu Wardhana. Candi Singosari became the dharma of Kertanegara (1268-1292), the last king, after the kingdom fell to King Jayakatwang of Kediri.
After Ken Angrok became king, Tunggul Ametung’s son, Anusapati, sought revenge for his father's death. He eventually killed Ken Angrok and ascended to the throne, but was later murdered by Tohjaya, Ken Angrok’s son. Anusapati's connection to Candi Kidal, located in Kidal Village, is significant, as the temple is linked to him in both the Pararaton and Negarakertagama chronicles, highlighting its importance in the history of Singhasari.
The sculptures of Singhasari is one of, if not the most beautiful art form, as seen in its detailed carvings, and also in the high aesthetics of its Tantrayana iconography of their gods and goddesses’ incarnation into their kings and queens.
Candi Singosari used to be called Candi Menara for its towering shape, and Stutterheim, a Dutch scholar, called it Candi Cella for its four chambers on each side of the walls. The chambers used to house beautiful sculptures of the pantheon. According to the report, Candi Singosari was a complex of seven temples, which sadly are now in ruins. Only Candi Menara still stands tall. The local people named it Candi Cungkup, and some Candi Renggo, until at the end it is officially named Candi Singosari, the same name with the village in which the temple is located. Nobody knows the original name because it was buried for several hundred years until it was finally discovered in 1803.
To fully understand the high art of Singhasari culture, we have to observe the sculptures of that period. Let’s look at the style of the textile worn by four Singhasari sculptures housed in Museum Volkenkunde in Leiden, were fortunately returned by the Dutch government and are now displayed in the Indonesian National Museum in Jakarta – Durga, Nandiswara, Mahakala, and Ganesha. They are wearing cropped jacket with rounded collar that covers only up to the upper side of the stomach. Each jacket adorns different patterns. We can study many details from these jackets, such as the side seam and the chest-front strap. These details reveal that the Singhasari jacket has similarities with Balinese Sesimping used by princes, warriors, and dancers.
We can try to understand the meaning of the Singhasari cropped jacket from a scene in the relief of Candi Jago. It was part of a love story between Prince Sudana and Manohara, a Kinari princess. Sudana is wearing a sleeveless, cropped jacket during a dangerous situation in which he had to cross two rivers, that according to Keith O’Brien, one of them is the River Snake that can only be crossed using a magical talisman, which is the cropped jacket.
Other curious attire on these four sculptures is the fabric worn to cover their lower body. Durga wears two sheets of fabric, one covers down to her ankle with skull patterns, and one covers down to her knees with flower patterns. Similarly, Ganesha’s skull patterns are even more pronounced. They appear not only on Ganesha’s fabric, but also on his earrings, crown, cup, and a pedestal made out of rows of skulls.
Other patterns found in the fabric include a face which may symbolize a Kala head. We can compare the similarities of the fabric patterns in Ganesha in Leiden and in Bangkok National Museum, Thailand, which is also from Singhasari. It is also interesting to look at the fabrics worn by Nandiswara and Mahakala, because we can still trace them to current patterns of overlapping circles.
We can be sure that these fabrics were influenced by a foreign culture that entered Java during the Singhasari period. There are similarities with patterns painted in illustrations on the temple ceilings in Pagan, Myanmar from the 13th century. At the same period, we can also trace similar patterns in Cambodian temples, such as in Bayon Temple.
In China, similar patterns is used in various material, including wooden sculpture and ceramics, and especially in textile. The overlapping circles patterns is named coin or money pattern in China.
There are also pieces of cotton from India with the same pattern found in Egypt, as we all know that there were exchanges between the two countries, and Indonesia. So, it is possible that fabrics in this pattern were traded to Java and became the inspiration of the Nandiswara and Mahakala sculptures and remained popular until the Majapahit era. But over time, the pattern had been simplified – from overlapping circles to an abstraction that we recognize as one of the most prominent batik patterns, Kawung.
The beauty of Singhasari carving is not only seen in the sculptures of Durga, Bhairawa, Ganesha, and others, but also in the temple reliefs, such as in Candi Jago with its bas relief of Kunjarakarna, Patayana, and Arjuna Wiwaha stories, that reminds us of wayang kulit (red. shadow puppet).
This Camunda statue is an embodiment of Goddess Durga in an angry state (krodha), a powerful form associated with destruction. Indeed this is one characteristic of the Tantrayana sect.
This statue was discovered in Argomulyo village, not far from Candi Singosari; it was found in a fragmentary form, meaning that it had been broken up.
Then came the Dutch scholars, first Boris, and then CC Berg, William Frederich Stutterheim, and others who reconstructed this statue. They glued and pieced together the broken parts until it became this one, rare Indonesian Camundi statue, or also known as Camunda. This statue was brought to Candi Singosari courtyard. Camundi mythology believes that she defeats Yaksha. Yaksha is the enemy of the gods, or Sura, and Yaksha is Asura. There are two powerful Yaksha, Canda and Munda.
No gods can defeat Canda and Munda except Goddess Durga. Hence, the gods agreed to send Durga and bestowed her with their weapons. We can see the weapons being held in her multiple arms in this statue. Because she was able to defeat Canda and Munda, she was called Goddess Camunda. Her connection with Tantrayana is evidenced in the skull and head patterns that dominated her figure. Moreover, she was sitting atop strewn corpses, which is a typical portrayal of the Tantrayana sect. The original name Camunda ends up with suffix i being Goddess Camundai because it means devotion towards Camunda. One of the Singhasari kings who worshipped Camunda and her Tantrayana connection is Kertanegara.
